LASER BEAM MACHINING UNIT-6

LASER BEAM MACHINING UNIT-6

LASER BEAM MACHINING UNIT-6

The word LASER stands for ‘Light Amplification by simulated Emission of Radiation.

Introduction:

Laser machining is a technology that uses a laser beam, which is a narrow beam of intense monochromatic light to cut required shapes of profile or pattern in almost all types of materials. LBM(laser beam machining) is based on conversion of electrical energy into light energy and then into thermal energy. Here the way of metal removing is same as that of EDM process but method of generation of heat is different. The application of heat is very finely focused in case of LBM as compared to EDM.

In this process laser beam is focused into a small area, causing the material to melt and vapourise, Holes as small as 0.01 cm diameter can be drilled to metals, hole depth – diameter ratios of 10:1 are more typical (aspect ratio). It is very costly method and can be employed only when it is not feasible to machine by another process or methods.

Principle of LBM:

Laser works on the principle of quantum theory of radiation.

Consider an atom in the ground state or lower energy state ‘E1’ when light radiation falls on the atom, it absorbs photon of energy ‘h𝜗’ and goes to the exited state ‘E2’.

Normally the atoms in the exited state will not stay there for a long time, it comes to the ground state by emiting a photon of energy, E=h𝜗. Such an emission place by one of the following two methods.

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MEMS-Mechanical Sensors and Actuators UNIT-2 Material

MEMS-Mechanical Sensors and Actuators UNIT-2 Material 

MEMS-Mechanical Sensors and Actuators UNIT-2 Material 

Objectives:

objective of this chapter is to study the following.

To elucidate the role of microsensors and microactuator with examples

To discuss the principle of sensing and actuation

To list out the types of measurands to be measured

Principle of various types of mechanical microsensors and microactuators

Cantilever, beam and diaphragm type microstructures as active element

Principle of operation of tlow sensor and pressure sensor

Capacitive effects in sensing and actuating

Application of MEMS microphones for acoustics measurements

MEMS gyroscope as rate sensor

Principle of shear mode piezoactuator

Typical gripping piezoactuator

Inchworm Technology and actuation principle

Sensors and actuators play a significant role in almost all kinds of instrumentation, process control,

factory automation and machine control applications. For simple understanding consider the machine

control applications such as the mechatronic systems. A mechatronic system is an electronically

controlled mechanical machine. Some examples of mechatronic systems are robot, AGV (Autonomous

Guided Vehicle), cranes, NC (Numerically Controlled) machines, automobile engine and tanker.

Micromechatronic systems are mechatronic systems but their dimensions are measured in microscale

levels. Regardless of their dimension all mechatronic systems are composed of four prime components.

They are sensors, actuators, controllers and mechanical components. Figure 5.l(a) shows a schematic

diagram of such systems comprising all the components stated above. The schematic illustration is

common to all types of mechatronic systemsl. Figure 5.1(b) shows an example of motion control

I For more information on mechatronic system refer to Chapter l ofthe Book Mechatrrmiu' Principles. Concepts and

Applications. by l\/lahalik published by McGraw-Hill. Singapore.

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MEMS- Chemical and Biomedical Microsystems UNIT-8 Material

MEMS- Chemical and Biomedical Microsystems UNIT-8 Material

MEMS- Chemical and Biomedical Microsystems UNIT-8 Material

Objectives :

• objective of this chapter is to study the following.
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleine~Acid) sensor
• Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) sensors
• Biomedical and chemical microdevices
• BioMEMS and Chemodevices
• Chemo resistor, cheinocapacitor and chemotransistor

The scope of MEMS technology has recently been extended to health sciences and chemical industry.

MEMS devices used for health science and chemical industry are called BioMEMS and chemical

microsystems. Both BioMEMS and chemical microsystems are commonly called biochemical

microsysrems (BCMS). In other words, BCMS is defined as the methods and principles that allow the

development of biochemical sensitive microdevices. Areas of study and development include diagnostic tools, genomics, drug discovery and drug delivery systems. Some important designs are chemosensors, pollution and odor detectors (e~nose) and DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) analyzers 

(An introduction to DNA is given in Appendix C). BCMS can _be classified under two topics; BCMS actuators and equipments (BCMSAE) and BCMS sensory devices (BCMSSD). BCMSAE deals with the study of surgical equipments, instruments and micro artificial organs. On the other hand, BCMSSD includes fundamental study of sensory devices based on various transduction principles. This chapter deals with BCMSSD. The development of BCMSAE is still in the rudimentary stage of research. 

However. basic operational principles of some of these systems have already been presented in the previous chapters (In

Chapter 8-Magnetic actuator for microsurgery applications and in Chapter ).

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MEMS- Microfluidic Systems UNIT-6 Material

MEMS- Microfluidic Systems UNIT-6 Material

MEMS- Microfluidic Systems UNIT-6 Material

Objectives :

objective of this chapter is to study the following.

• Microfluidic systems (MPS)
• The concept of Lab-on-a-chip
• Important considerations on microscale fluids and systems
• Properties of fluids
• Various phenomenological effects for fluid flow. In particula and their principles of operations are presented.

 °Dielectrophoresis (DEP)

° Electrowetting '

° Electrothermal

° Thermocapillary

° Electroosmosis

• Optoelectrowetting (OEW): Light-actuated fluid flow 
• MEMS channel, filter and micropumpr

Introducation :

The study of motion or transportation of fluids and their mixtures at a microscale level is known as

microlluidics. Microdevices, which are used to transport and store lluid are called microtluidic systems (MPS) or microlluidic devices (MFD). Typically, the MFS handle fluid volumes in the order of nanoliter.

Microfluidic systems are the subject of great scientific and commercial interest for a wide range of

applications, including the biomedical, environmental, automotive, aerospace, and defense.

Microlluidic system is a recent development, which obviously refers to the MEMS devices capable

of handling small volumes of fluids in the order of nano, pico and even femtoliter volumes, Microfluid devices are designed to inject, move, separate, and merge liquid droplets. Sometimes, the microfluidic devices have dimensions ranging from millimeter range to micrometers. 

Confusion arises in defining microscale device and microfluidic device, but in reality the latter one is much smaller than the former one, however, these terms are used synonymously. 

Microfluidic devices involve construction and design that differ from macroscale fluidic devices.

Many conventional macroscale devices have already been in use however; microfabrication conformant

devices and systems can provide greater performance over conventional devices. Nevertheless, the

microfluidic devices are fabricated by micromachining techniques that fulfil the very stringent

requirements on reliability! and compatibility issues. Design and development of microfluidic devices entails basic knowledge on the properties and dynamics of the fluids. The study also demands to acquire knowledge as far as interaction of fluid with the material and with the electrical, thermal and optical signals are concerned.

This chapter considers the fundamentals at the core of macroscalepfluid mechanics. Important

criteria such as validity theory of macroscale fluid dynamics will be presented, This includes the study of continuum phenomena, Further, the importance of surface tension in both continuous and discrete flows will be the matter of discussion. Broadly the following topics will be presented.

' Concept of lab-on-a-chip

° Properties of fluid such as density, viscosity and surface tension

° Surface wetting phenomenon such as dielectrowetting (DEW), thermalwetting, therrnocapillary wetting, electroosmosis flow (EOF) and optoelectrowetting (EOW)

° Microchannel, molecular gate as filter and micropump

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jntu-kakinada b.tech mechanical 4-1 sem study materials - scr mech rocks

jntu-kakinada b.tech mechanical 4-1 sem study materials - scr mech rocks.

jntu-kakinada b.tech mechanical 4-1 sem study materials - scr mech rocks

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SHAPER, SLOTTER, PLANNER machines

SHAPER, SLOTTER, PLANNER
INTERDUCTION:-
In machining, the excess metal is removed by cutting tool. Metal is removed from work with the tool moving and work stationary; the work moving and the tool stationary or both the tool and work moving.
Shaper:-
The shaping machine (shaper) is used for machining flat surfaces. The work is held stationary on table, the tool carried in the tool head reciprocates past the work with the help of horizontal ram.
Slotter:-
The slotter (slotting machine) is similar to shaper except that in a slotter the ram holding the tool reciprocates in vertical axis, and it is intended to cut grooves, key ways and slots of various shapes.
Planer:-
The planer (planing machine), like shaper is primary intended to produce flat surfaces. The major difference is that in planer the cutting tool is stationary and table holding the work reciprocates past the stationary tool.

SHAPER

Working principle of shaper:-

The shaping machine is used for producing flat surfaces. Machining on shaper is more economical with easier work setting and shaper tooling. The working principle of shaper is shown in fig. in case of shaper the job is rigidly held in a suitable device like a vice or clamped directly on the machine table and the cutting tool reciprocates across the work piece. The tool cuts on forward stroke and the return stroke remains idle as there is no cutting action in that stroke.

Main parts of shaper:-
Construction:- The main parts of the Shaper machine is Base, Body (Pillar, Frame, Column), Cross rail, Ram and tool head (Tool Post, Tool Slide, Clamper Box Block). Base:- The base is a heavy cast iron casting which is fixed to the shop floor. It supports the body frame and the entire load of the machine. The base absorbs and withstands vibrations and other forces which are likely to be induced during the shaping operations.
Column:-
It is box type cast iron body, mounted on the base and acts as a housing for the operating mechanism of the machine. It can also act as a support for other parts of the machine such as cross rail and ram..etc. In case of hydraulic shaper, it carries the hydraulic drive mechanism inside it.
Cross rail:-
It is a heavy cast iron construction attached to the column at its front on the vertical guide ways. It carries two mechanisms one for elevating the table and other for cross travel of the table.
Table:-
It is made of cast iron and has a box type construction. It holes and supports the work during the operation and slides along the cross rail.
Ram:-
It is also a cast iron semi-circular in shape and provided with a ribbed constructions for inside rigidity and strength. It carries the tool head. It carries the mechanism for adjustment for ram position inside it.

Slotter:

Working principle of slotter:-
Slotting machine (slotter) is a reciprocating type machine in which ram holding the tool reciprocates in vertical axis, and the work is supported on a rotary table which is mounted on the carriage. The cutting motion is produced by the reciprocating moment of the vertical ram. The tool removes the material from the job during down ward cutting stroke and upward stroke is idle.

Main parts of a slotter:-
The main parts of the slotting machine are shown in figure.
(i) Base (ii) Column (iii) Table (iv) Ram (v) saddle
(i) Base:-
It is a heavy cast iron construction and is also known as bed. It act as a support for the column, the driving mechanism ram, table and all other fittings. At its top it carriers horizontal ways along which the table can be traversed.
(ii) Column:-
It is another heavy CI body which acts as a housing for the complete driving mechanism. At its front it carries vertical ways, along which the ram moves up and down.
(iii) Table:-
Usually a circular table is provided on slotting machines. In some heavy duty slotters, such as a puncher slotter, either a rectangular or circular table can be mounted. On the top of the table are provided T-slots to clamp the work or facilitate the use of fixtures, etc.
(iv)Ram:-
It moves in a vertical direction between the vertical guideways provided in front of the column. At its bottom, it carries the tool post in which the tool is held. The cutting action takes place during the downward movement of the ram.

Planer

Working principle of planer:-
The planning machine or planer is one of the basic machine tools of the industry. It is used for producing flat surfaces. It is designed with stationary housing for holding tool heads and a reciprocating table for holding the work piece. Thus the work is mounted on table reciprocates past the stationary tool and the feed is given by the lateral movement of the tool; metal is cut only in the forward movement of the table and return stroke is idle and complete quickly.
Main parts of a planer or double housing planer:-
The planer are available in different types for doing different types and sizes of job; the most common being the standard and double housing planer.
The main parts of the planer are:
1. Bed 2. Table 3. Housing or Column 4. Cross rail 5. Saddle
6. Tool heads 7. Controls.

1. Bed:-
It is a very large and heavy cast iron structure that acts as foundation of the machine. It supports column and all moving parts of the planer. The length of bed is doubled than the table, it carries over it. At the top of the bed v- ways (guide ways) are provided to support and guide the table. It accommodates the table driving mechanism.
2. Table:-
The table is also made of CI with an accurately machine top. It is mounted on the bed the upper surface of the table has ‘T’ slots to facilitate clamping of work pieces, special fixtures and vices with T-bolts. Its main function is to hold the workpiece and reciprocate on guide ways to impart motion to job for planning operation.
3. Housing or Column:-
It is also called as column or uprights. These are long vertical structures places on each side of the bed. It supports the cross-rail on which the tool heads are mounted. Its front face is accurately machined to provide guide way for cross-rail. It also supports the mechanism for operating the tool heads.
4. Cross-rail:-
Cross-rail is a rigid casting mounted horizontally on the vertical ways of housings. It can moved vertically up and down by means of elevating screws located within the ways of the housing. It carries two saddles with tool heads in which tools are held. The tool head may be moved horizontally on the guide ways of cross-rail by means of feed screws.
5. Saddle:-
The unit fitted to the ways of cross-rail is known as saddle. The front of the saddle is provided with ways to hold tool head and feed screws. The saddle can be moved in cross wise direction over the table.

DRILLING AND BORING MACHINES

DRILLING AND BORING MACHINES

DRILLING AND BORING MACHINES Introduction: The drilling machine or drill press is one of the most common and useful machine employed in industry for producing forming and finishing holes in a workpiece. The unit essentially consists of: 1.A spindle which turns the tool (called drill) which can be advanced in the workpiece eitherautomatically or by hand. 2.A work table which holds the workpiece rigidly in position.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DRILLING:-
Drilling is the process (operation) of making holes in a solid metal (workpiece) by means of a rotating cutting tool called drill. It is one of the most common operations in the manufacturing industry. In this operation can’t produce a perfectly true hole. It is considered as a roughing operation. So drill is followed by another operation called reaming. In reaming operation the required dimensional accuracy & fine surface finish is obtained means of a multi tooth revolving tool called reamer. In this, the workpiece is held stationary during the process.

The main operating parts of a sensitive machine/drill press are Base, Column, Table, and Drill Head.

1. Base: The base is a heavy casting that supports the machine structure; it provides rigid mounting for the column and stability for the machine. The base is usually provided with holes and slots which help to Bolt the base to a table or bench and allow the work-holding device or the workpiece to be fastened to the base.

2. Column: The column is a vertical post that Column holds the worktable and the head containing the driving mechanism. The column may be of round or box section.

3. Table: The table, either rectangular or round. Drill machine/press in shape supports the workpiece and is carried by the vertical column. The surface of the table is 90-degree to the column and it can be raised, lowered and swiveled around it. The table can be clamp/hold the required the workpiece. Slots are provided in most tables to allow the jigs, fixtures or large workpieces to be securely fixed directly to the table.

4. Drilling Head: The drilling head, mounted close to the top of the column, houses the driving arrangement and variable speed pulleys. These units transmit rotary motion at different speeds to the drill spindle. The hand feed lever is used to control the vertical movement of the spindle sleeve and the cutting tool.

Different types of drilling machines and their features:-
1. Portable drilling machine 2. Sensitive or bench drill 3. Upright drilling machine (single spindle) 4. Upright drilling machine (Turret type) 5. Radial drilling machine 6. Multi spindle drilling machine 7. Deep hole drilling machine. 8. Gang drilling


Boring:

Boring is the process of using a single point tool to enlarge and locate a previously made hole. Drills tend to wander or drift, thus, where greater accuracy is required, drilling is followed by boring and reaming.
Classification of boring machines:-
Boring machines are manufactured in various different designs and sizes. They can broadly be classified into the following three types:
1. Horizontal boring machine,
2. Vertical boring machine,
3. Jig boring machine.
The above three, the first two types include production machines, used in general production work, last one is a precision machine used for precision boring operations, such as jig boring.

Measurement and instrument definations

Measurement and instrument definations 

Measurement:-
The old measurement is used to tell us length, weight and temperature are a change of these physical measurement is the result of an opinion formed by one (or) more observes about the relative size (or) intensity of some physical quantities.
Definition:
The word measurement is used to tell us the length, the weight, the temperature, the colour or a change in one of these physical entities of a material. Measurement provides us with means for describing the various physical and chemical parameters of materials in quantitative terms. For example 10 cm length of and object implies that the object is 10 times as large as 1 cm; the unit employed in expressing length.
These are two requirements which are to be satisfied to get good result from the measurement.
1.The standard must be accurately known and internationally accepted.
2.The apparatus and experimental procedure adopted for comparison must be provable.
Instrumentation:-
Definition:
The human senses cannot provide exact quantitative information about the knowledge of events occurring in our environments. The stringent requirements of precise and accurate measurements in the technological fields have, therefore, led to the development of mechanical aids called instruments.
Or
Definition: the technology of using instruments to measure and control physical and chemical properties of materials is called instrumentation.
In the measuring and controlling instruments are combined so that measurements provide impulses for remote automatic action, the result is called control system.
Uses:
-> study the function of different components and determine the cause of all functioning of the system, to formulate certain empirical relations.
-> to test a product on materials for quality control.
-> to discover effective components.
-> to develop new theories.
-> monitor a data in the interest of health and safety.
Ex:- fore casting weather it predicting in the earth case.
Methods of measurement:-
1. Direct and indirect measurement.
2. Primary and secondary & tertiary measurement.
3. Contact and non-contact type of measurement.
1. Direct and indirect measurement:
Measurement is a process of comparison of the physical quantity with a standard depending upon requirement and based upon the standard employed, these are the two basic methods of measurement.
Direct measurement:
The value of the physical parameter is determined by comparing it directly with different standards. The physical standards like mass, length and time are measured by direct measurement.
Indirect measurement:
The value of the physical parameter is more generally determined by indirect comparison with the secondary standards through calibration.
The measurement is convert into an analogous signal which subsequently process and fed to the end device at present the result of measurement.
2. Primary and secondary & tertiary measurement:
The complexity of an instrument system depending upon measurement being made and upon the accuracy level to which the measurement is needed. Based upon the complexity of the measurement systems, the measurement are generally grouped into three categories.
i. Primary
ii. Secondary
iii. Tertiary.
In the primary mode, the sought value of physical parameter is determined by comparing it directly with reference standards the required information is obtained to sense of side and touch.
Examples are:
a) Matching of two lengths is determining the length of a object with ruler.
b) Estimation the temperature difference between the components of the container by inserting fingers.
c) Use of bean balance measure masses.
d) Measurement of time by counting a number of strokes of a block.
Secondary and tertiary measurement are the indirect measurements involving one transmission are called secondary measurements and those involving two convergent are called tertiary measurements.
Ex:
The convergent of pressure into displacement by means of be allows and the convergent of force into displacement.
Pressure measurement by manometer and the temperature measurement by mercury in glass tube thermometer. Mighty Mechanical 2
The measurement of static pressure by boundary tube pressure gauge is a typical example of tertiary measurement.
3. Contact and non-contact type of measurements:
Contact type:
Where the sensing element of measuring device as a contact with medium whose characteristics are being measured.
Non-contact type:
Where the sense doesn't communicate physically with the medium.
Ex:
The optical, radioactive and some of the electrical/electronic measurement belong to this category.
Objectives of instrumentation:-
1. The major objective of instrumentation is to measure and control the field parameters to increase safety and efficiency of the process.
2. To achieve good quality.
3. To achieve auto machine and automatic control of process there by reducing human.
4. To maintain the operation of the plan within the design exportations and to achieve good quantity product.

Functions of management science

Functions of management science 

Management is a universal phenomena. We can see it in every walk of life. It is an integral part of society. The process of getting things done through others as per firm’s objectives is known as management. Henry fayol the father of management classified management functions into planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.
Gullick and Urwick have described the management functions as POSDCORB. Here P stands for planning, O stands for organizing, S-staffing, D-directing, CO –coordination, R-reporting, B-budgeting.

However the functions of management can be divided into six categories:
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Staffing
4. Directing
5. Coordinating
6. Controlling
1. Planning:
This is one of the important functions of management. Planning is a mental process requiring foresight and sound judgment. Planning is the process of deciding in advance what to do, when to do, where to do and how the results are to be evaluated. It is nothing but taking action in advance and deciding today what is to be done tomorrow. Efficient planning is essential to achieve the organizational goals in most efficient and effective manner. No, organizations can success without planning.
2. Organizing:
It is the process of establishing relationships among the members of the organization. This relation ship is created in the form of authority and responsibility. It is an important activity by which management brings together the manpower and material resources for the accomplishing of free determined goals. It also involves creating job positions at various levels and establishing mutual relationships between them. No, organizations can success without organizing.
3. Staffing:
It refers to placing of right persons at the right job at the right time. It involves recruitment, selection, training..etc. it involves training managers and other employee’s to improve their capabilities and preparing subordinates for the future as well as ensuring their personal development and growth. While performing the staffing function managers prepare reports on the performance of their subordinates and make recommendations regarding their promotion. No, organizations can success without staffing.
4. Directing:
It is the process of guiding the subordinates towards achieving the organizational goals. Generally managers issue day to day instructions and guide lines to the subordinates. Managers have to communicate decisions and instructions to the subordinates. It is nothing but giving guidance to the subordinates. It is concerned with the activating of the members of the organization for the accomplishment of the organizational goals. No, organization can successfully run without directing.
5. Coordinating:
It is the process of integrating the activities of different units and organization to accomplish the organizational goals efficiently. The purpose of coordination is to ensure that the goals of units and subunits are pursued in harmony with each other keeping in view the goals of the organization. Coordination is needed at all levels of management due to the interdependent nature of activities assigned to various departments and units.
6. Controlling:
It is the process of seeing whether the activities have been performed in conformity with the plains. It helps the management to get its policies implemented and to take corrective actions if performance is not in accordance with the planned objectives. No, organization can successfully run without controlling.

Plant Layout

PLANT LAYOUT

WHAT IS PLANT LAYOUT, EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLES AND TYPES OF LAYOUTS?

The concept of plant layout has great significance in industrial organizations. Today every organization is giving much importance to plant layout. The success of an organization is also based on its plant layout. The systematic arrangement of men, machinery and equipment in a given plant area. So, as to achieve maximum production with minimum cost is called plant layout. It means keeping the machinery and equipment with in a given plant area. It can be defined as the process of determining a spatial location for the creation of physical production facilities suitable to manufacture a product.

Principles of plant layout:-

The main principles of plant layout are:
1.Minimizing per unit cost.
2.Optimizing quality.
3.Effective use of manpower, machinery, equipment and space.
4.Employee’s convenience, safety and comfort.
5.Realization of production targets with in a stipulated time period.
6.Achieving organizational goals in most efficient and effective manner.
7.To achieve maximum production with minimum cost.

Types of plant layout:-

The pattern of plant layout is based on number of products (P) and production quantity(Q). There are there types of plant layouts.
1.Product layout
2.Process layout
3.Fixed layout
1.Product layout:-
If the layout is designed for a particular product to be produced, it is called product layout. The logical sequence in the production process forms the basis for the arrangement of machinery under this layout. It means in this case the machinery is arranged in the logical sequence for different operations. It facilitates greater degree of automation to minimize errors and fatigue’s. The following chart shows the production of commodity ‘X’ and its operations it requires six operations.
i.Drilling
ii.Boaring
iii.Grinding

Advantages:-
a. Faster and greater production.
b. Lower cost of material handling.
c. Easy monitoring.
d. Effective use of resources.
e. Team work benefits.
f. Maximum production with minimum cost.
g. Smooth and continuous work flow.
h. Product completes in lesser time.
i. Better coordination.
j. Simple production planning and control.
k. Less in process inventory.


Disadvantages:-

a. Little flexibility.
b. Discontinuity in production lightly.
c. Monitoring each worker made difficult.
d. Use capital outlays.
e. Threat of duplication.

2. Process layout:-

It is also called functional layout. If the layout is designed for different products and for different processes, it is said to be called process layout. In this case the machinery and equipment is arranged in a separate sections. For different products and for different operations. For example there are two products P and Q to be produced.

Advantages:

a. Maximum utilization of resources.
b. Flexibility.
c. Continuity.
d. Interesting to workers.
e. Easy to monitoring.
f. Convenient to workers.

Disadvantages:

a. Higher material handling cost.
b. Larger production cycle.
c. Monitoring may be complex.
d. Higher inspection cost.
e. Higher wagible.

3. Fixed layout:-

If the layout is designed in a fixed position it is said to be called fixed layout. Here the material components remains stationary. Men, machinery tools … Etc. are brought to that location and assembled the product. Generally we can observe this type of layouts in large projects.